Environmental Effects on Childhood Intelligence Childhood cognitive development has fascinated scholars for decades. Phyllis LF Rippeyoung states that Jean Piaget, a well-known psychologist, suggested that cognitive abilities originate at birth, arriving at stages where the child acquires more knowledge and skills. Through this, the child learns about the world (“Is It Too Late…” 242). A child's environment greatly influences their cognitive abilities, and identifying environmental factors can help reduce the risk and symptoms of disabilities. Children can be very intelligent and the environmental influences around him can determine his future, depending on whether the influence is positive or negative. Even a seemingly unimportant environmental factor can dictate how cognition develops. Environmental effects can be multiple, such as chemical and drug-related factors, family interactions and stimuli, parental mental state and marital status, child nutrition and health, and race. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on "Why Violent Video Games Shouldn't Be Banned"? Get an original essay Scholars Stephen A. Rauch and Bruce P. Lanphear wrote an article on how the environment relates to disabilities in children. They studied how identification and control of the environment are relevant to the prevention of disabilities (193). The environment plays a significant role in determining whether a child develops symptoms of disability. It is critical to know how the environment changes cognitive functioning in infants, especially as many disabilities are on the rise. These include asthma, preterm birth, autism, ADHD, and obesity (197). Today the prevalence of autism is increasing. It is one of the most debilitating diseases, which begins in childhood (Rauch and Lanphear 200). Although researchers don't know much about this condition, they have found that one of its causes may be environmental; researchers introduced this theory due to the sudden increase in autism (Rauch and Lanphear 201). Alleged environmental hazards are mercury, lead, tobacco, organophosphate pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, manufactured chemicals, and mixtures of many chemicals (Rauch and Lanphear 201). ADHD is also becoming increasingly common in children; it affects approximately one in ten children (Rauch and Lanphear 201). Suspicions about its environmental causes are similar to those of autism. Rauch and Lanphear announce, “While the use of biomarkers has allowed scientists to link environmental exposures to disabilities in children, the long latency between exposure and disability makes it difficult to establish these links with certainty” (201). They then comment on what is being done regarding these serious problems: “However, these studies raise serious questions about the need to review the existing regulatory framework, which essentially allows children to be exposed to suspected toxic or chemical substances until there is definitive proof of their gravity". toxicity” (201). These risks are very problematic and it is dangerous not to notice the effects at the last minute, when children are already starting to develop disorders. According to Rauch and Lanphear, there are three possible methods for preventing disabilities: education, law enforcement, and engineering. Education involves teaching people about disabilities and factors that increase risk. The application uses laws that protect against bad behavior. Finally, engineering requires careful management of the environment to reduce exposure as much as possible (203). Most environmental factors have to do with the physical environment children find themselves in: theirhouses and neighborhoods. In poverty-stricken cities and villages, the unsanitary atmosphere, toxic waste, and other types of pollution can cause symptoms of disability (Rauch and Lanphear 195 and 198). Some homes expose children to lead, and this is associated with cognitive problems such as low IQ and ADHD (Rauch and Lanphear 197). Many other factors can influence children's cognition. Rauch and Lanphear state: “…environmental conditions induced during childhood can worsen throughout a person's life and express themselves as chronic diseases in adulthood or old age” (197). This includes many types of disabilities, but also includes cognitive limitations. Rauch and Lanphear learned that many researchers are examining the effects of toxins on cognition. They say, “Carbon black has been associated with lower verbal and nonverbal intelligence and poorer memory performance…” More and more studies are finding this to be a common finding. Rauch and Lanphear continue, “These links between airborne toxins and cognitive performance are less well established, but fit a broader pattern of toxic exposures interfering with brain development in young children” (200). Even at the lowest level of exposure, toxins can be dangerous; it is harmful to the fetus and newborns (Rauch and Lanphear 200). If mothers are faced with these toxins and chemicals, they run the risk of giving birth prematurely, which in turn could affect the baby's cognition. Scientists are realizing that it's not just mothers who are at risk. All people are at risk of exposure; no one is safe (Rauch and Lanphear 200). Drugs and chemicals can have a very negative effect on any human being, but especially on children due to their age and underdevelopment. Infants are more susceptible to the negative effects of drugs than adults. Indeed, Ian Adatia and others agree with Rauch and Lanphear that the adverse effects of drugs can cause temporary or permanent damage to the brain (253). Many types of drugs and chemicals, including cocaine, alcohol, nicotine and marijuana, can not only damage the brain but also stunt the growth of newborns. This is why doctors advise mothers not to take drugs or activities during the gestation period. Authors Rina D. Eiden, Yvette Veira, and Douglas A. Granger say, “Studies have shown that chronically elevated levels of cortisol can have deleterious effects on the brain, including deficits in memory, learning, state regulation, and social development. emotional". (528). Even after the baby is born, exposure to these things can create risks to the baby's physical, mental and emotional health. Newborns may experience higher levels of stress, increased cortisol reactivity, slower recovery times, and poor parenting (Eiden, Veira, and Granger 529). Parents are a great source of influence in a child's life. If mothers use any kind of medication, it will change their reactions to children's needs. In studies, they have been shown to be less sensitive and less responsive while interacting with their children (Eiden, Veira, and Granger 529). Family interaction is perhaps the most obvious environmental agent influencing children's cognition. Scholars Natasha J. Cabrera and others discuss the particular influences of parental interaction and relationships. They studied a sample of Latino children with their parents to reach conclusions about child cognition. Their experiment consisted of trained field personnel visiting homes to observe interactions. They performed a computer-assisted interview with the mothers, recorded videos of theinteractions between mother and child and assessed children's cognitive development (Cabrera et al. 1194). Videos shot by field staff ranged from forty-five seconds to five and a half minutes, focusing on the mother teaching the child a small task, such as hitting blocks together or turning the pages of a book (Cabrera et al. 1194). . Field staff gave the child's father a questionnaire to fill out based on his relationship with the child. They didn't focus as much on the father's interactions. The authors concluded that both the mental states and marital status of the parents directly affect the child. Parental depression is “associated with greater marital problems and higher levels of hostile or negative maternal and paternal parenting such as insensitivity to infant signals and inadequate stimulation” (Cabrera et al. 1191-1192). Proof of this are the results of experiments by Cabrera and others. They examined interactions between mother and child, with the results shown on infant cognitive test scores. They found that if the mother's mental state was healthy and positive, the child's test score was much higher (Cabrera et al. 1201). If the mental state was more depressed, the child's test scores were much lower (Cabrera et al. 1203). If each parent's mental health is not doing well, the parents' marriage may not go well. This will ultimately affect each parent's relationship with the child. This is why both a good mental state and a good marital status are important; both have a very significant influence on the cognitive development of the child. A failing or unhealthy marital relationship between mother and father negatively affects offspring and vice versa. The authors write, “…positive mother-father relationships in European-American and Mexican-American families have a direct positive effect on child adjustment, whereas marital conflict predicts child maladjustment” (1192). In other words, if the parents' marriage is good, the child will reciprocate the good feelings. This correlation is present not only with newborns, but also with older children, adolescents and young adults, especially if the relationship between parents and children is close. Researcher Rippeyoung provides a similar factor that relates to infant cognition: family structure (“It's It's Too Late…” 240). A mother faces much greater pressure if she has never married or separated from the child's father. In this situation, the child's cognitive abilities may be limited more than they would be in the opposite situation (240). It is better if the child's mother is married. Stress levels decrease, both in mother and child. The negative effects on the child's cognitive functioning are minor. The parents' individual relationships with the child are important; this includes stimulating the baby. Researchers Joscha Kärtner, Heidi Keller and Relindis D. Yovsi analyzed mothers' interactions with their children. They say that usually “mothers react intuitively to infants' signals within a short period of time, normally less than a second” (540). In all families, this looks different. Nulliparous mothers usually worry about their baby more than multiparous mothers. Whether mothers know it or not, this type of behavior helps their children grow. Stimulation is necessary for children's brains to develop. When mothers react, children begin to “perceive themselves as causal agents whose behavior directly influences their social environment” (Kärtner et al. 540). Kärtner, Keller and Yovsi then state: "This knowledge has fundamental implications for subsequent peopleprocesses of children's cognitive and socioemotional development" (540). Rippeyoung states that there have been scholars who dispute the negative consequences on cognition of having a larger number of siblings. ("It's too late..." 240). The more children there are in a family, the more rapidly they spread and become depleted. While this is true, scholars are not sure that this specifically negates the growth of infant cognition (240). it is how children learn language (“Is It Too Late…” 239). Stimulation should come largely from parents, but stimulation from outside family members can also be important , but not limited to, reading, singing, telling stories, playing peek-a-boo, and tickling (239). Rippeyoung then mentions the concept of “direct speaking” which refers to the use of language in ways such as repetition, imitation, questioning, and reading. (239). Parents' interaction with the child stimulates the child's growth. Where there is no stimulation, there is no cognitive growth. As Rippeyoung says, stimulation is extremely important because without it a child cannot learn language, and without language the child cannot communicate with his parents, nor with the rest of the world (“Is It Too Late…” 239) . The stimulation challenges them to not only learn to communicate, but also to use their senses to learn about the big world around them (239). Rippeyoung suggests that mothers' mistake of not stimulating their children stems from the mother's decision to reenter the workforce (239). He doesn't spend enough time with the baby because he is away most of the time. Although non-family members, such as babysitters and day care workers, can stimulate the child with interaction, specific stimulation from mothers is unique and incomparable. Stimulation is very beneficial for newborns, but can sometimes have a negative effect on children. The mental state of the parents or caregivers determines the type of stimulation the child receives (good or bad). Researchers Liat Tikotzky and Avi Sadeh examined the role of parental cognitions in infant sleep and suggested: “Parental cognitions regarding infant behavior were associated with infant behavior. The influence that parental cognitions have on the child's behavior is assumed to be mediated by how the parents behave and react to the child” (861). When a child wakes up during the night, parents may become irritated because they are exhausted from all the stress that comes with parenting. Therefore, while parents try to calm the child and return them to sleep, their mentality towards the child may be inappropriate, transmitting negative or worried feelings to the child. Parents may also become disengaged from homework (861). Tikotzky and Sadeh state: “…child sleep problems [are] significantly related to maternal cognition related to difficulty setting limits, increased doubts regarding parental competence, and increased anger toward child demands " (861). An unhealthy attitude on the part of the parent negatively affects the child. This type of stimulation does not benefit newborns. In addition to stimulation, the health of the newborn also greatly influences his cognitive abilities. It is clear that malnutrition decreases cognitive functioning. Breastfeeding is a part of your baby's environment that can greatly influence his or her future. The benefits of breastfeeding are a widely debated topic among researchers; some say it provides sufficient nutrition while others say it doesthey deny. New research suggests that breastfeeding positively influences baby's cognition, although the extent of this is not entirely certain. Seaneen Sloan, Moira Stewart, and Laura Dunne state, “Cognitive development is known to depend on a wide variety of genetic, environmental, and socioeconomic factors” (107). The authors conclude that the findings “are unclear whether differences in cognitive performance reflect a direct nutritional benefit of breast milk” (Sloan, Stewart, and Dunne 107). While this is true, there can definitely be some positives to breastfeeding, but this research conveys that positive outcomes may not manifest unless coupled with other factors, such as a certain length of time for breastfeeding and good parenting behaviors (Sloan, Stewart, and Dunne 108). Rippeyoung also studied the effects of breast milk on infants and young children. She states that breastfeeding provides some explanation for deficiencies in infants' cognitive development (“Can Breastfeeding Solve Inequality? The Relative Mediating Impact of Breastfeeding and Home Environment on Poverty Gaps in Canadian Child Cognitive Skills” 66). It states: “Research has consistently demonstrated positive breastfeeding outcomes in terms of infant health, as evidenced by its promotion by Health Canada, the Public Health Agency of Canada and the World Health Organization” ( 69). It then claims that breastfeeding helps children achieve higher IQ scores (69). Scholars have many differing opinions on this topic. Some say that milk itself does not determine the baby's IQ, but the mother's genetics do. Both sides of this argument have excellent reasoning. Researchers have conducted many studies, but many of them do not take into account the mother's IQ. Sloan's study also did not take into account the mother's IQ, but did take into account the mother's education levels. A highly reliable study takes into account the mother's IQ. The results of this study show that breastfeeding children was not the main cause of high IQ, but rather the cause was the inheritance of the mother's high IQ. Racial differentiation is another factor that has something to do with children's cognitive abilities. Since at least 1917, black test scores have been consistently and significantly lower than those of whites. Rippeyoung observed differentiation, and its beginning, in childhood. It used data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) to “evaluate whether there is a racial gap in cognitive abilities, as measured by things like child exploration, babbling, early problem solving, and use of words, among children between the ages of six and twenty-two months… and what factors explain it” (“Is It Too Late…” 236). The cause of the gap as a whole is extremely complex, with many factors added to it, but Rippeyoung has looked at a few of them. Previous research by past scholars determined that family background and socioeconomic status, to some extent, created the gap between test scores of Black and White children (237). Rippeyoung states that sometimes the cause of the gap is economic inequality, but he also states that this cause does not completely determine the gap (237). Another possible cause of the gap is the lack of stimulation in infants due to the mother's working behavior (239). This is especially true for poorer families, but not necessarily for racially diverse families, who need extra income, forcing the mother to find work. Rippeyoung has found from other scholars that “the mother's job appears to have a negative effect.